Life of Polar Bears

The polar bear is a native of bear found within the Arctic Circle that encompass the Arctic Ocean at the North Pole and the adjacent land. According to the observation of many scientists, this type of animals must have evolved from the ancestors of the brown bear. Polar bears are carnivorous, meaning that they are meat-eaters. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Life of Polar Bears specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Their most common food includes bearded seals, ringed seals and walrus pups. As a matter of fact, these creatures are reputed to be the largest meat eating animals worldwide. And alongside the omnivorous Kodiak, they are the largest in the bear family, measuring almost the same. On average, male polar bears are estimated to weigh between 770-1,500 lb, while females range almost half the males in size. According to Stirling and Archibald, owing to their unique body features and characteristics, po lar bears have successfully adapted to living close to Northern Hemisphere’s farthest tip (127). Current, polar bears are distributed in five regions, that include: Greenland (Denmark), Norway, Canada, Russia, and Alaska in the US. These animals are covered with heavy fur allover the body, a unique feature that enables them to survive in extremely cold temperatures. Their fur constitutes of hollow guard hairs to avoid it from matting down while swimming in waters. The color of the fur would vary from pure white to something close to a yellow hue. The white fur is beneficial to the animals, considering the fact that they normally spent most of their time on the snow hunting for their prey. This plays a significant purpose in helping them avoid detection by their prey. This also serves as a key adaptation feature which makes the bears, and especially the cubs, less vulnerable to predator attacks (Derocher 168). However, apart from their fur being pure white, their skin is actu ally black and this is another distinguishing feature which enables polar bears to absorb much heat from the sun into their bodies. The habitant for polar bears would include both the sea ice and the land. Polar bears have very large fore paws with a diameter of about 12 inches and just like any other sea creature, their toes are webbed to enable them propel rapidly through the water. Polar bears are observed to possess poor eyesight, but their excellent ability to smell is applied to compromise their sight disadvantage, thus enabling them to survive well in their habitats (Atkinson and Stirling 231). The animals communicate with each other through sounds and body language. Other things which add up to their diet include vegetation, sea birds and their eggs and beach-cast carrion, among other food stuffs in the arctic. Advertising Looking for research paper on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, one surprising f act with these animals is that, despite them living in water, they don’t drink water. Liquids needed for their normal body functioning is attained from what they consume as food. Normally, a female bear gives birth to two tiny cubs at a time. The cubs are usually attached to their mother for a period of two to three years, before they become independent and start hunting for themselves. Usually, polar bears would be solitary except in some cases such as when they are mating. Another distinguishing characteristic associated with polar bears is that, they are intelligent and even curious by nature. This is evident in their habit to courageously approach and try to investigate ships and vehicles that tend to pass near them. Polar bears would feel endangered when provoked and this can lead to possible attacks to humans who may happen to cross their way. This however, would be expected, especially with bear mothers who may tend to become aggressive in an attempt to defend her you ng ones. Usually, the life span of a wild polar bear is estimated to be 20 years. It may not be easy to know the exact number of polar in the world, owing to their existence in several regions. However, according to recent information about polar bears, their population is estimated to be below 25,000 worldwide. The world count of these creatures is highly endangered and is likely to drop greatly in the near future, leading to a possible extinct of these endangered creatures. It is observed that, the decreasing population of polar bars has been caused by a number of factors such as the loss of habitat by humans, regular climatic changes, and constant environmental pollution which has been extended to their ecosystems. According to Derocher, these creatures are likely to face extinction by 2100, if efforts are not taken to preserve their conservation (172). The heightening issue of global issue remains to be the biggest threat of polar bears today (Derocher 243). Changes in the glo bal temperatures are responsible for changing the creatures’ habitat, their behavior, their food, and also their life span. As it would be observed, ice platforms are constantly melting as a result of the heightening atmospheric temperatures. In this case, the life of polar bears, ranging from feeding to breeding is highly threatened, thus indicating a possibility of real extinction of the polar bear.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Life of Polar Bears specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Atkinson, Shannon and Stirling, Ian. Growth in early life and relative body size among adult polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Journal of Zoology 239. 2 (2006): 225—234. Derocher, Andrew. Polar bears in a warming climate. Integrative and Comparative Biology 44. 2 (2004): 163-176. Print. Derocher, Andrew. Possible impacts of climatic warming on polar bears. Arctic 7. 12 (2003): 240-245. Print. Stirli ng, Ian. and Archibald, Ralph. Aspects of predation of seals by polar bears. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada 34. 8 (1997): 126-129. Print. This research paper on Life of Polar Bears was written and submitted by user Jonathon Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Crying Victims Children Of The Imprisoned Mothers Social Work Essay Essays

Crying Victims Children Of The Imprisoned Mothers Social Work Essay Essays Crying Victims Children Of The Imprisoned Mothers Social Work Essay Essay Crying Victims Children Of The Imprisoned Mothers Social Work Essay Essay the chief purpose of moralss in research is to guarantee that research is non used for harmful or evil intents and that no injury comes to anyone while research is carried out. Even though this research is based on secondary research where a thorough literature reexamine shall be done, the research worker commits to the usage these rules: beneficence, regard for individuals and honestness by doing certain that all names are anonymised throughout the research. Honesty is of import when transporting out research. Therefore, she needs to guarantee that all information read remains indifferent and non-judgemental and that anything that would do injury to anyone must be avoided. Furthermore, informed consent should be sought when transporting out any research as it refers to the participants voluntarily holding to take part in research, holding well understood what the research involves ( Haralambos A ; Holborn, 2008 ) . However, since this research will do usage of secondary research methods, informed consent is non needed to finish this research. In add-on, because there are kids involved ; to interview them requires informed consent from their parents which might be hard because of the sensitive issue, confidentiality related to this subject and the protection of these kids as some of them are already affected by the imprisonment of their female parents. Key words Chapter 3 Literature Review The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child ( UNCRC ) declares that the kid, by ground of his physical and mental immatureness, needs particular precautions and attention, including appropriate legal protection, before every bit good as after birth , Article 2.2 further inside informations, States Parties shall take all appropriate steps to guarantee that the kid is protected against all signifiers of favoritism or penalty on the footing of the position, activities, expressed sentiments, or beliefs of the kid s parents, legal defenders, or household members. The Children Act 1989 covers the followers: reforms the jurisprudence associating to kids ; makes proviso for local authorization services for kids in demand and others ; amends the jurisprudence with regard to kids s places, community place, voluntary places and voluntary organisations ; makes proviso with regard to fosterage, kid minding and twenty-four hours attention for immature kids and acceptance and for affiliated intents. ( DfEs Children Act and Reports, 1989 ; 2004 ) . This act is farther polished with Children Act 2004 and provides a wider scheme for bettering kids s lives. The overall purpose is to promote incorporate planning, commissioning and bringing of services every bit good as better multi-disciplinary working, take duplicate, addition answerability and better the coordination of single and joint reviews in local governments. : ( DfEs Children Act and Reports, 1989 ; 2004 ) . The Green Paper, Every Child Matters, outlines the Government s proposals for reforming the bringing of services for kids, immature people and households. It improves on what has already been set out to guarantee the protection of kids at hazard of injury and disregard from negative results and back up all kids in optimising all their endowments and potencies. In the papers for Every Child Matters, Working Together to Safeguard Children ( HM Government, 2006 ) , of import definitions on some concepts on manus were given which included the population of kids of captive female parents who are left to either fend for themselves or be in the detention of authorised defenders: In the Children Acts 1989 and 2004, a kid is anyone who has non yet reached their eighteenth birthday. Children therefore means children and immature people throughout. The fact that a kid has reached 16 old ages of age, is populating independently or is in farther instruction, is a member of the armed forces, is in infirmary, in prison or in a Young Offenders Institution, does non alter his or her position or entitlement to services or protection under the Children Act 1989. ( HM Government, 2006, p.34 ) Safeguarding and advancing the public assistance of kids is defined as protecting kids from ill-treatment ; forestalling damage of kids s wellness or development and guaranting that kids are turning up in fortunes consistent with the proviso of safe and effectual attention ( HM Government, pp. 34-35 ) Child protection is a portion of safeguarding and advancing public assistance. This refers to the activity that is undertaken to protect specific kids who are enduring, or are at hazard of agony, important injury ( HM Government, p. 35 ) . Many bureaus are after safeguarding and advancing the public assistance of kids. Every Child Matters defines such as: protecting kids from ill-treatment ; forestalling damage of kids s wellness or development ; guaranting that kids are turning up in fortunes consistent with the proviso of safe and effectual attention ; and set abouting that function so as to enable those kids to hold optimal life opportunities and to come in maturity successfully. ( HM Government, 2007, p.11 ) General Consequences of Imprisonment of Parents When a parent goes to prison, there are several possible effects on the kids. Bernstein ( 2005 ) enumerates post-traumatic emphasis upset, anxiousness, jobs with attending or concentration, alteration in kiping forms, changeless flashbacks of the apprehension, hovering corsets between different health professionals, school jobs and poorness. If these kids do non acquire the appropriate support they need, so the enormous grade left on them by the imprisonment of their parent can acquire worse, making more harm and doing it more hard for them to acquire by ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Simmons ( 2003 ) explains that the long-run impact is more serious if it is the female parent, alternatively of the male parent who is arrested. The break in the kids s lives is higher particularly since she is most likely the primary or even exclusive carer. The kids need to hold person else to take attention of them, possibly move places, and along with that, they leave their schooling and friends behind. Some siblings even get separated and are assigned to different carers or defenders. If they are sent to be cared for by their grandparents, these carers may be excessively old or ill to take attention of them and they may non hold the available resources to back up the kids s demands. They may besides be covering with holding a boy or girl in gaol and being burdened to care for the kids he or she has left for them to care for ( Simmons, 2003 ) . Effectss on Children The impact of a parent s captivity can turn out to be lay waste toing on the kids. Their reactions to such traumatic experience may do them much sadness, irritation, anxiousness and a deep sense of loss ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Many writers have found that there are increased hazards to their development ( Dallaire, 2007 ; Myers et al. , 1999 ; Thompson A ; Harm, 2000 ) . Strong negative emotions such as self-blame, rejection, guilt and feelings of misrepresentation may take to instability and insecurity on the portion of the kids ( Payne, 1997 ; Miller, 2002 ) . If the kids have non been exposed to good function theoretical accounts showing appropriate behaviors, it is likely that after a parent s captivity, negative effects on the kids may come up and bring mayhem in their development. Such effects could be riotous inclinations in school, mental wellness issues, substance abuse, underachievement in school and even condemnable behavior ( Murray and Farrngton, 2008 ) . Broidy et Al. ( 2003 ) point to the separation of the carer, poorness and low academic accomplishment to be the likely causes that lead such kids to develop abnormal psychology and engagement in condemnable behavior ( Sameroff et al. , 2003 ; Centre for Children and Families in the Justice System, 2003 ) . Wright A ; Seymour ( 2000 ) found that parental captivity besides brings about fear, apprehensiveness, melancholy, regressive behavior and physical and wellness jobs to kids. Upon self-contemplation, these kids may besides believe that they have done something incorrect to do their parent to be imprisoned, and such self-blame may lend to their feelings of rage, embarrassment, incrimination and solitariness ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . Such negative effects may emerge due to the several injury experienced by kids related to their parent s imprisonment which may include the painful and sudden separation between parent and kid, the kid s consciousness of their parent s criminalism, the poorness that consequences from being left without a parent deducing income from a occupation, the societal stigma that comes with holding a parent in gaol and the anxiousness experienced at trying to continue their contact with the captive parent ( Murray A ; Farrington, 2008 ) . Not all kids experience the negative impact of their parent s imprisonment. For some, particularly those who have been involved in domestic force or kid maltreatment, it may be a cause of alleviation ( Brown, 2002 ) . If the parent led a disruptive or helter-skelter life due to drug usage, intoxicant maltreatment or engagement in illegal dialogues, so there is more stableness in the kids s lives when the parent is arrested ( Robertson, 2007 ) . If the kid had small contact with the parent prior to the captivity so the impact could be minimum. The reaction to the imprisonment among siblings may besides be different as older kids may experience that they have the added duty of caring for the younger kids so they have to be strong for them while the younger kids may hold trouble in set uping unafraid relationships with others due to their inability to understand what happened to their household. The difference in reactions may besides be due to the different relationships and degree of familiarity shared with the captive parent or merely a difference in the siblings attitudes and personalities ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Consequence of Time of Imprisonment Before Imprisonment: Apprehension: Witnessing a parent being arrested may be one of the most traumatic experiences a kid could hold particularly if the apprehension was hostile. Bernstein ( 2005 ) studies that about 70 % of kids of captive parents in the USA watched their parent being handcuffed and 30 % were confronted with arms. The idea of collaring the suspect in the late eventide or early forenoon when he or she is likely to be place makes it more prone to kids to witness the apprehension since they are besides place with their parents at those times. However, Robertson ( 2007 ) believes that if the apprehension is handled sensitively, sing the feelings of the kids and other household members, so it may ease the hurting and even increase the regard for the functionaries by the kids. For kids who were non cognizant of their parent apprehension are left without clear information about what transpired and may conceive of the worst sing the status of their parents and worry if they will of all time see them once more ( Wolleswinkel, 2002: Children of Prisoners Library, 2003 ) . A great concern is what happens to the kids if they are left on their ain after their parents are arrested. It is the duty of the collaring officer to see the kids s public assistance, like to whom they will be left to be cared for and explicating to them particularly the younger kids what will go on to them and their parents ( Robertson, 2007 ) . This calms everyone s anxiousness as kids and their parents are assured that they will non be left entirely, and the collaring officers gain a more positive image in the eyes of the kids alternatively of being seen as the enemy ( Bernstein, 2005 ; Kingi, 2000 ) . Pre-trial Detention: The period after apprehension and before strong belief is the first clip kids adjust to populating without their parent. It is when they experience troubles due to alterations in their life style such as non holding their parent cook their nutrient or convey them to school. The slow instance processs may lengthen the waiting period impacting both parent and kids adversely. Parents may lose their occupations, thereby losing income for the household and kids become in a province of concern about what will go on to their parents and finally, to them, because of the separation. ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Ongoing probe before concluding strong belief may forestall detainees from holding contact with the outside universe and that includes the detainee s household ( Townhead, 2007 ) . This may impact the keeping of contact between parent and kids impacting their relationship. Trial and Sentencing: Childs have the opportunity to see their parents during the test if they are allowed by the tribunals to be present at that place. If they are non allowed to go to the legal proceedings, it farther adds to their sense of disaffection from what is go oning to their parent. For those who get the opportunity to go to the test, they may happen it hard to grok the instance due to the strangeness of the linguistic communication and procedures used ( Murray, 2007 ) . Expecting the tribunal determination can be particularly nerve-racking for the household because of the uncertainness of what will go on to the parent. Should the parent be found guilty, it may floor the kids and be disillusioned with the fact that separation may be lasting or at the least, prolonged ( Children of Prisoners Library, 2003 ) . During Imprisonment Retaining parent-child relationships: Imprisonment can do the keeping of parent-child relationships really hard due to the care of regular contact. When prison trials are allowed, they are normally brief and the quality of interaction between the parent and kid, inadequate. By this clip, dealingss may be strained due to the stigma and shame associated with holding an captive parent ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Restrictions on direct contact between kids and their captive parent include prison ordinances, distance between the place and the prison installation or the reluctance of one party to see the other. Most of the clip, indirect contact via mail or telephone calls, if available are merely relied upon. Prison ordinances, distances to be travelled, viing demands on household members or unwillingness on the portion of one or other party to run into can forestall or restrict direct contact between kids and their captive parents. Most of the clip, indirect communicating in the signifier of letters and telephone calls ( if available ) must be relied upon. Access to internet communicating is non widely available and some legal powers even ban it for security grounds ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Keeping positive dealingss between kids and their captive parent will depend on the quality of relationship they shared before imprisonment and the present grade of willingness each party has to go on their relationship. Fundss may besides impede such care since household budgets normally shrink when a parent, who is the breadwinner all of a sudden stops working due to imprisonment. There might non be adequate financess for phone calls, gasolene or menu to see the captive parent. In any instance, kids should be consulted as to how much they still want to keep the relationship and to what extent. Their public assistance should be of extreme consideration ( Robertson, 2007 ) . In installations where phone calls are allowed and where captive parents and their kids on a regular basis talk to each other vial calls, positive results are observed. Parents adjust better to prison life and the kids learn to get by better with the separation with more contact with their captive parent ( Murray, 2005 ) . Some prison installations provide livelihood undertakings to parents in prison such as some prisons at San Vittore, Italy. Imprisoned female parents are allowed to do relational objects for their kids to assist them keep the mother-child relationship ( Robertson, 2007 ) . Another survey, conducted by Gabel and Schindledecker ( 1995 ) , demonstrated that the boies of captive parents are more aggressive than other kids. Girls seemingly have more of a leaning to attending shortage jobs ( ibid. ; besides Sack, 1977 ) . The literature besides shows a strong relation between parental absences and future delinquency on kids ( Larzelere A ; Patterson, 1990 ) . Children frequently present emotional and psychological effects of holding a female parent in gaol, such as the injury of separation and stigma ( Seymour, 1998 ; Simmons, 2000 ) . Where the captivity is one of a series of consecutive separation or breaks in the relationship between female parent and kid, nevertheless, and the kid is more accustomed to these, the impact is likely to be much slighter ( Johnston, 1995a ) . Problems with destabilization and break are frequent in kids of incarcerated female parents ( Centre for Children and Families in the Justice System, 2003 ) . Some writers recommend that it is really of import for incarcerated female parents to presume duty of their kids after their release ( Prendergast et al. , 1995 ) . However, this does non ever occur. For case, if the kid has been placed in surrogate attention or province detention, the chance of the female parent demonstrating after release that she is capable of taking attention of the kids is reduced ( Pollock-Byrne, 1992 ) . Resilient Children There are many definitions of resiliency, although all of them portion the thought of a successful version in people who had experienced an inauspicious state of affairs ( Haz et al. , 2003 ) , or the ability to retrieve from hardships ( Newman A ; Blackburn, 2002 ) . These definitions are corroborated by others writers such Masten and co-workers ( 1990 ) , and Luthar and Cicchetti ( 2000 ) . Another definition is given by Garmezy ( 1991, p. 4 ) , which refers to the care of competent working despite an meddlesome emotionalism . Grotberg ( 1996a ) describes resiliency as an ability which allows person to avoid, cut down or get the better of the harmful effects of hardship. Resilience could be found in a human being, society or group. It is non associated merely to a individual hardship, because it can be developed to pull off future hardships better ( Grotberg, 1996b ) . Garmezy ( 1993 ) gives us another definition of resiliency, as the single ability to set decently, positively o r experiencing competent, despite being at serious hazard. Newman and Blackburn ( 2002 ) besides give a definition for resiliency, but for kids. They say that resilient kids are more capable of facing emphasis, of pull offing alteration and indecisiveness, and recover more rapidly and exhaustively from upseting incidents. Initially, the definition of resiliency was merely associated with a individual with a positive accommodation to adverse state of affairss ( Rutter, 1987 ) , but at that clip the definition was besides applied to the household ( Allison et al. , 2003 ; Hanson, 2001 ; McCubbin A ; McCubbin, 1996 ; Walsh, 2002 ) . In resiliency, when the household is confronting a challenge, they have to cover with those jobs and seek to better and hold the capableness to get the better of the crises ( Black A ; Lobo, 2008 ) . Besides the fact of lasting the hardship, the resilient household besides seems to hold a higher chance of developing, increasing and being more capable to work out future inauspicious state of affairss ( Walsh, 1998 ) . Together, they were capable of get the better ofing the job ( Black A ; Lobo, 2008 ) . Black and Lobo ( 2008 ) mentioned that, although there is non any cosmopolitan list of protective and recovery factors, the literature distinguishes some of them as follows: optimistic attitude, spiritualty, household component harmoniousness, flexibleness, communicating, good economic disposal, clip together, common leisure involvements, imposts and wonts, and societal support. Resilience in a household could be reached by flexibleness, common support and counsel, and cooperation ( Walsh, 2002 ) . For a resilient household, it is besides of import to develop support intercessions, such as rearing instruction focused in capableness and job declaration ( Rutter, 1999 ) . Childs who have gone through hardship should be given good societal support ; entire support from at least one parent or replacement ; good experiences at school ; a strong perceptual experience of capacity and assurance ; capacity to assist others ; prosecute in disputing state of affairss in a manner to let them to develop problem-solving, emotional and get bying accomplishments, and other extracurricular activities that allow the kids to develop their capacities and emotional adulthood ( Newman A ; Blackburn, 2002 ) . A dedicated individual outside the household ( ibid. ) and a good societal connexion with, for illustration a instructor, could besides be a good protective factor, particularly for striplings ( Burton A ; Marshall, 2005 ) . Adolescents must be involved in their societies, households and schools in a manner to forestall or even diminish the chance of going involved in condemnable behavior ( Burton A ; Marshall, 2005 ) . However, Burton and Marshall found a strong relationship between prosecuting in featuring activities and engagement in aggressive behavior in immature people. They found that featuring activity is non a protective factor but could so run as a hazard factor ( ibid. ; besides Watkins 2000 ) . Eccles and Barber ( 1999 ) said that extracurricular activities may let the striplings to be involved and occupied in a manner to forestall them from prosecuting in delinquent behavior. However, they besides said it is necessary to stipulate the type of activity. They found that when the extracurricular activity is pro-social, such as volunteering or church, the chance of an adolescent going involved in condemnable behavior is lower. In activities such as athleticss, the chance of developing imbibing jobs is really high ( ibid. ) . Other protective factors could be the accomplishment of respectable societal functions, the aptitude to lend to the family fundss and educational achievement ( Newman A ; Blackburn, 2002 ) . Beam and co-workers ( 2002 ) verified that when the striplings have fondness and support from others, they will be protected from prosecuting in condemnable behavior. Extra defenders include swearing relationships ; good emotional support ( Brooks, 1992 ) ; self-esteem ( Wolin A ; Wolin, 1993 ) ; support for being independent ( Segal A ; Yahras, 1988 ) ; hope ; perceptual experience of being loved ( Mrazek A ; Mrazek, 1987 ) ; school accomplishment ( Wang, Haertel A ; Walberg, 1994 ) ; faith in God ( Garbarino, Kostelny A ; Dubrow, 1993 ) ; and unquestioning love from another individual ( Bronfenbrenner, 1996 ) . Osborn ( 1990 ) added that a female parent with a positive mentality tends to hold more resilient kids, while female parents with negative feelings tend to hold depressed kids. Karp ( 2007 ) noted that when a kid has a parent in gaol, it is of import that instructors and the school societal workers are sensitive to the jobs and to the feelings of the kids, while at same clip being witting of the support that the kids could necessitate. For that ground, schools should hold programmes for the kids that enable them to portion their jobs with other kids and to understand that others have similar jobs ( ibid. ) . Children of incarcerated parents are more vulnerable, particularly the kids of incarcerated female parents who are considered as kids at higher hazard ( National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 2004 ) . Some factors could chair the impact of the parental imprisonment, but the most important forecaster of the manner the kids will set to the separation is the quality of the relationship they had with both parents ( Parke A ; Clark-Stewart, 2002 ) . Another of import factor for a good accommodation is the frequence of contact they have with their captiv e parents ( Parke A ; Clark-Stewart, 2002 ) . Method of Data Analysis Contributions to Literature Review Chapter 4 Analysis and Findingss Chapter 5 Discussion of Findingss Theories associating to this research ( Attachment and societal acquisition theories ) Chapter 6 Deduction for societal work pattern What I have learned from making this research Restriction of the survey Recommendations Decision

Choose one of the following Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

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Maths Coursework Investigating Borders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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The past world expo economy influence and effect on property market in Essay

The past world expo economy influence and effect on property market in previous host cities and countries - Essay Example The first of such exhibition was held in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London in 1851. It was named at that time as â€Å"the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations† and rightly so because this exhibition celebrated the coming of age of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. Thus the 1851 Great Exhibition was not only a trade fair but also a display of scientific, industrial and technological inventions. Queen Victoria’s consort, Prince Albert, possibly did not foresee that what he conceptualised would become today’s third grandest event after the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games, considering its impact on culture, on society and the nation’s economies. Today, the World Expo has come a long way. It is not only a trade fair and a showcase of new scientific and technological advances and inventions but it is also a means of promoting cultural correspondence and transfer and a way of finding solutions to issues that hound humanity. Moreover, it becomes a platform of presenting a strong national image before the whole world. In other words, it affords countries to advertise their assets and perceived advantages over other nations. The pavilions that each country construct have become competitive in terms of lavishness, splendor, magnificence and cost. There is a contest as to who builds the most stunning and most memorable pavilion. So many World Expo historians are of the opinion that the geodesic dome of the US pavilion in the 1967 expo in Montreal, Canada is the most memeorable and the glass and iron Crystal Palce of UK in the 1851 World’s Fair in London as the most imposing. In each world expo, all countries try to express s ome theme via its architectural design and the contents of its pavilion Thus each World Expo is characterised by glitter, glamour, visions and images (Maddox 2004, p. 79). The

Psychology Theories of Motivation

Psychology Theories of Motivation The evolution of motivation PART 1 – BRAIN PARTS IN EVOLUTION Human motivation is a psychological construct that has its basis in the brain. The brain is an organ comprised of nervous cells and comprises the nervous system in most organisms, with the exception of certain invertebrates. One view suggests that different parts of the brain are specialized for different functions. Being the most complex organ in a vertebrate’s body, the brain has been associated with several functions. Among these, the brain is responsible for perception, motor control, information processing, but it also has more complex functions for the human species, those of learning and memory. One particularly interesting function of the brain is that of motivation. Motivation is frequently associated with the limbic system. Often called the â€Å"reptilian brain†, the limbic system also accounts for other functions, such as spatial memory, olfaction, learning and emotion. 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MacLean) argued that the limbic system is the oldest part of the fore-brain, developing to manage the flight or fight response. When looking at the evolution of brain components, it is important to consider the fact that evolution is selecting on function. This process is mediated by the metabolic cost of the behavioral function. Developmental demands need to come to a certain compromise with developmental variation in order to ensure a positive outcome in terms of function and costs. The limbic system is thus seen as a â€Å"unit of development† due to its patterned change in the compromises taken. Some evidence supports the view that the limbic system is a unit of development [Reep, 1984; Squire, 1992; LeDoux, 2000]. The limbic system has a diversity of functions; however, it acts statistically as a single function. The components of the segmental structures of the forebrain are linked, offering the possibility of a pleiotropic effect on the evolution of behaviour. Thus, it would mean that selecting for one component would mean selecting for all of them. For instance, selecting for a visual component in humans would result for a certain election of structures utilised for different functions, such as motivation. The authors looked at how the scale of the limbic system changed throughout time. They found similar patterns of scaling across all taxa. For primates, insectivores, ungulate and marine mammals, reduced limbic structures were associated with increased volumes of the isocortex. One possible cause explaining this was suggested. They argued that the† expansion and contraction of the domains of regulatory gene expression† which is associated with prosomeres could be a source of such structure. In primates in particularly, the arrangement of neural components by prosomeres suggest the possibility of the inverse relationships between limbic system and isocortex volumes. Put how the limbic system actually decreased Another way one could understand the evolution of the primate brain would be to consider the trade-offs between factors. There has been a reduction in the primate limbic system which could be attributed to a reduction of the olfactory system because of the dependence primates have on vision. Another explanation could be that this reduction is secondary to another adaptation; that of expansion of cortical systems specialised in memory. This unfortunate decrease in the limbic system could be only a minor side effect for the beneficial adaptation the increase of the cortex has brought- storage of long-term memory mediating increasingly social interactions. An evolutionary look at how the structure and function of the basal ganglia changed with time passage shows that it underwent a big elaboration in the transition from amphibians to reptiles. This change consisted in the increase of cells in the basal ganglia, as well as receiving more dopaminergic and serotonergic inputs (hormones). Moreover, more neural circuitry (neuron rich) basal ganglia were found in modern mammals, birds and reptiles. The implications of this change are that amniotes might have had the ability to learn or execute more sophisticated behaviours and movements. This ability could be what allowed the amniotes to better adapt to a fully terrestrial habitat. As for the mammals, it appears that a divergence from this reptile lineage represented by the emergence of the cerebral cortex which became the target of the basal ganglia circuitry’s function in the control of movement. Thus, rudimentary basal ganglia are likely to have been present in the common ancestor of the jawed and jawless vertebrates that live today. The implications of this increase in complexity of the brain can be seen in the behaviour repertoires of animals. The reptiles and mammals have a more complex behaviour than amniotes. This alongside the shift in habitat brought in the need to deal with more complex and variable situations, requiring more complex and adaptive behaviour in order to acquire food, avoid predators and survive. These changes were promoted by the increase in the visual and hearing apparatus -> allowed for more control over behaviour.  Conenct back to motivation – how did the decrease in limbic system affect motivation? Because there is a high interconnectedness between the limbic system and the cerebral cortex, cognitive processes can modify the effect of the limbic system on the functions of the hypothalamus (hormone production), which plays a role in the reward-punishment process – the basis for motivational behavior. The basal ganglia receive information about the body position and motivational state from the cerebral cortex – integrates this information and facilitates for the appropriate (motor) behavior. The role of the basal ganglia in motivated behavior has been explained by Cunha et. al (2012). It consists of the basal ganglia selecting for unconditioned/conditioned responses, goal-directed actions and stimulus-response habits. This is done by the activation of striatal neurons (input neurons of the basal ganglia) by cortical and subcortical neurons encoding those processes. Levels of extracellular dopamine influence the strength of the synapses which signal outcomes that are better or worse than â€Å"expected†. Moreover, the dopamine release in response to the unconditioned/conditioned responses can â€Å"energize† the execution of selected actions. This is why the basal ganglia is thought to play a role in the selection of action processes that are needed to express unconscious and long-term memories, which play a role in motivation. PART 2 – PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION The biological thus shows what the basis of motivation is. It does not, however, explain the cognitive aspect of it. Several attempts to model and explain motivation from an evolutionary psychological way have been proposed. There are different perspectives taken in the study of motivation. Behavioral, cognitive and biological. Art 9 ->Batali and Grundy (1996)  tried to present a model of the evolution of motivation by referring to how they could become integrated into generational adaptive behavior, they tries to establish how the innate and learned components of the motivational mechanisms that generate behavior are connected. They used the concept of motivational system to investigate this process. A motivation system, for them, is the mechanism that allows an organism to feel pleasure and pain as responses to certain environmental conditions; pleasure in response to conditions that are beneficial for the organism’s fitness and pain in adverse conditions. What they argue is that this motivational system evolves alongside the behaviors evaluated by it. They used James Mark Baldwin’s idea through which he argued that an organism’s ability to undergo ontogenetic adaptation, through which the congenital and phylogenetic adaptation that are kept in existence are those which favor adapti ve modifications during the lifetime of organisms which have them. This is how various ontogenetic modes of action, such as learning, can work in synergy with evolution. Thus, organisms that have the ability to learn are more likely to improve their behavior, which in turn offers them an advantage over others. Possessing the improvements that learning offers can result in selection of organisms that carry those traits innately. This is how, he argues, species can evolve in directions endorsed by intelligence. This proposition is similar to Throndike’s â€Å"law of effect†, in which he suggested that animals will repeat the actions that have the most satisfying outcomes and avoid the ones that are displeasing. The mechanism that offers the possibility of feeling this pleasure and pain is the motivation system. This system can also be involved in the process of selecting actions which are expected to be favorably appraised. Evaluations depend on physiological and environ mental factors. Subtle changes in any characteristics of the environment or animal physiology can have drastic impacts on fitness. The authors of this article tried, thus, to model motivation using different complexity world simulations of the evolution of populations that contained designs that generated action and learning. Their findings showed that some organisms developed motivation systems that were accurate enough to direct learning in a direction that increases the fitness of actions performed by the agents. Moreover, their results showed that the motivation systems were attuned to the worlds they were a part of. The systematic distortions present in the worlds could be seen in the structure of the motivational system in such way that the distortions increased the adaptiveness of the generated behaviour. These results show how simple designs can be used to model motivation, implying that the complicated perspective in motivation of the cognitive perspective is somewhat unnecessary. Thus, members of population that incorporated learning tended to evolve more quickly and have higher performance than the organisms whose behaviour was innate. The adaptive behaviour that early generations must learn had the tendency to become more and more innate. This process occurs when there is an evolved motivational system that directs the learning of structures used to cause actions. All in all, this study showed that motivational systems can coevolve with the learning of the behaviours it assesses. =>cognition and motivation: Evidence for the co-evolution of motivation and cognition was found by Ermer et al. (2008)  when investigating whether status plays a role in regulating risky decision-making regarding resources in men. They discussed how access to relevant resources brings about intersexual competition in men, which also serves as a determinant for status. What they discovered was that motivation for risk-taking behaviour appeared in situations where men were of equal status and had resource loss problems. This suggests that the motivational systems that mediate status related problems in the social world also regulate cognitive operations which generate risky decision-making processes in men, implying that motivational and cognitive mechanisms co-evolved to function in synergetic, domain-specific ways. The motivation’s role in this process is to determine what state or good an individual wants to attain – it refers to their aspirations. The controversial point of this finding is that instead of desires or other motivations serving as inputs for domain-general decision regulations, it proposes that responses are produced by a motivational system that is specialized in regulating competitive interactions, being equipped with its own decision rules. It also shows that motivational systems are activated by cues. Another attempt to explain human social motivation from an evolutionary perspective has been done by Buss (1997) through discussing the Terror Management Theory (TMT). Being a theory anchored in evolutionary biology, TMT assumes that the major motive of any organism is survival. What the author argues is that this theory of social motivation should recognize that the engine that drives the evolutionary process is reproduction, and not survival. Thus, it is important to recognise the real causal process of evolution in order to establish what stands behind motivation.

Computers and The Increase of Labor and Wage Inequality in The 1980’s :: History Technology Essays

Computers and The Increase of Labor and Wage Inequality in The 1980’s Although computer technology dates back to at least the 1940’s, microprocessors were first introduced on a wide scale in manufacturing in the 1970’s. It has been noted that mainframe computers started to be used in business in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. Computers have seemed to grow more rapidly ever since the Apple II was born in 1977 and the IBM PC in 1981. PC (personal computers) spread rapidly in the 80’s and 90’s and have been upgrading ever since. It has been said that during this increase in popularity and use of computers the labor inequality and wage difference has been increasing as well. Throughout this paper we will discuss reasons why computers are to blame and why computers have had nothing to do with economic increase of skilled educated workers and a decrease in need for unskilled and uneducated workers. Increase in the growth rate of the demand of more skilled workers due to the pace of the technological work from 1970 to the present has been one of the arguments against computers causing inequality. From the 1970’s the pace of work has been faster, the work load has been greater because demand has gone up, and many jobs have become more difficult to learn. There are no longer mills where education and much knowledge was needed to get the job done. Work has gotten much more involved and complex. The employment of high school drop outs have fallen from 64.4% in 1940 to 9.8% in 1996, and the employment of college graduates have risen from 9.3% to 41.6%. Although computers have been around that whole time there is no way they caused a 54.6% decrease in the employment of high school drop outs. It has also been said that there has been an expansion slowdown from what the country was used to in the beginning half of this century from the 1970’s, so this has allowed companies to pay one educated worker rather than paying two of three uneducated workers that did the same job. Over the years unions have also began to disappear causing some of those unskilled workers how were once protected by contracts to a given union to become no longer demanded. Many of those unskilled workers who escaped being unneeded have noticed a dramatic pay decrease. Many people might think, â€Å"What are you talking about, in the 1940’s they were making like five to ten dollars a day.